Eye Witness: False Memory

Eye Witness: False Memory

Kaplan University

Brain is not alone in his confusion and disappointment to his confidence about his eye witness’s testimony. We may believe that we remember things accurately but most memories are what we think we have observed; subjective to our state of being and combined with the information that we have been exposed to since the memory was encoded (Dobrin, 2016). In fact, eye witnesses are wrong about 30% of the time (Douglas, 2012). This is due in part to variations in perception, along with the brains tendency to alter information during each recall (Foxhall, 2000; Dobrin, 2016).

Recall or retrieval of working memory is the act of reflection and the re-accessing of events from a previous occurrence (Matlin, 2012). Memory is the information that has been encoded and stored in the brain, which is susceptible to a wide variety of biases and errors (Matlin, 2012). Some small memory errors are common and occur from divided attention (Matlin, 2012). For example, setting down keys while sorting through the mail, then being unable to find the keys later. Another common blip in memory is when attempting to come up with a certain word but cannot say it, with a sense that it is on the tip of the tongue (TOT) (Matlin, 2012).

There are three main ways in which information can be encoded and stored: Visually, Audio, and Semantic. In order to encode information, one must first pay attention and be aware of it, which is a process called attentional capture (Matlin, 2012). In long term memory, the encoding system relies on semantic perception and attentional capture to create meaning for the memory (Matlin, 2012).

Perception is the sensory experience and response to stimuli, it is through this process that our brains store information, such as recognizing the face of a friend or knowing that an apple pie is in the oven (Matlin, 2012). Interestingly, visual stimuli are incomplete, and in order for the brain to perceive, it must fill in the gaps (Foxhall, 2000; Matlin, 2012). As people move about their daily lives they collect information using attention, patterns and details are both implicitly and explicitly encoded and this information is used to fill in the gaps (Boundless, 2016; Matlin, 2012). It is the attention process that is responsible for visual recall, therefore, people will automatically assume missing visual features (Boundless, 2016; Matlin, 2012).

When people remember an emotionally charged event, they tend to believe that memories for the event are accurate because the emotions were strongly felt (Matlin, 2012; Dobrin, 2016). In actuality, people rarely see evidence of changes in memory because generally, they are not experiencing such extreme situations where discrepancies in recall are vital (Foxhall, 2000; Douglas, 2012; Dobrin, 2016). Despite the confidence in their testimony, witness’s potential of recalling wrong information is increased as time passes (Foxhall, 2000; Douglas, 2012). False information or New information occurs perhaps from a news brief of the incident or a conversation with a friend, any new information encoded to the memory, whether accurate or not, will influence details of the memory (Douglas, 2012). Thus, what we remember about an event changes slightly each time we recall the event and the altered memory is re-encoded, and so on (Dobrin, 2016; Douglas, 2012).

Research psychologists have been studying the reliability of eyewitness testimony for about 30 years and have demonstrated that witnesses identify the wrong person about 30% of the time (Douglas, 2012). These errors are thought to be common due to factors of perception, such as elements in the visual conditions during observing the crime (Foxhall, 2000). For example, the weather, the lighting, or the layout of the environment (Douglas, 2012). Moreover, stress can impact memory and with many crime scenes situations the extra processing required to make sense of the situation can interfere with memory accuracy (Douglas, 2012; Matlin, 2012).

Neuroscientist Daniela Schiller (2010) proposed that memory is not like a file folder that we refer to but more like a story that is revised each recall event. Because there is an emotional element to the details, when the memory is changed, the emotion is likewise altered (Foxhall, 2000) Schiller says, “My conclusion is that memory is what you are now. Not in pictures, not in recordings. Your memory is who you are now” (2010).

Fascinatingly, the subjectiveness of a person’s frame of reference can also influence the memory via perception (Douglas, 2012). Matlin (2012) describes memory as a complex mesh of the senses that function together, with the emotional state and cognitive processes of the person forming the memory. Furthermore, memory biases can be complicated based on expectations and beliefs about how the world works (Foxhall, 2000; Matlin, 2012). An example of this is seen in cases of racism, where a minority has been blamed for a crime that was committed by a Caucasian. These interfering stimulus work on the memory at the time of formation and again when it is being retrieved (Matlin, 2012). Therefore, upon reflection of an event, filtering is occurring based on the current state or mood and elements can be changed, omitted or even fabricated (Douglas, 2012; Boundless, 2016; Dobrin, 2016). This phenomenon is testimony to the principle put forth by Lao Tzu, “Abstaining from speech marks him who is obeying the spontaneity of his nature”, meaning, in this case, that human perception is subject to change and will, therefore, impact precision of memory (Butler-Bowdon, 2012).

Professional practices within the boundaries of competency and reliability come from commitment to scholarship, practice, ethics, and awareness (APA, 2016). Professional and utmost reliable resources for information and case study should be utilized (APA, 2016). In order to avoid giving wrong information, a practitioner should stay within the boundaries of their knowledge and always discuss limitations with the client before working together (APA, 2016). If some information given to the client appears to be inaccurate, a professional should first admit the mistake. Accountability comes in terms of building a meaningful relationship with the client, keeping awareness for cultural sensitivity and individual characteristics (APA, 2016). Accountability for the error shows strength and integrity to the client. Importantly, by taking diligent strides to ensure resources are valid, then correct the information or find another person or resource to step in and lend expertise. Last but never least, advocating for the client and ethical consideration for the situation, are among the top priorities (APA, 2016).

Supreme Court Justice William J. Brennan wrote in 1981, “There is almost nothing more convincing than a live human being who takes the stand, points a finger at the defendant, and says, “That’s the one!‘ (A-Z Quotes, 2016). Whether it is a celebration or the witnessing of a crime, there are affective responses occurring constantly in our attention that influence the details of the event being encoded for later recall (Douglas, 2012). We may believe that we remember things precisely, but most of our memories are a combination of what we think we observed and information we have been exposed to, since then. The fact is that creating false memories is a common phenomenon and there is nothing wrong with Brian, nor is he specifically to blame for his error in judgement.

References:

American Psychological Association. (2016). Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct. APA.com. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/

A-Z Quotes.com (2016). William J. Brennan Quotes. http://www.azquotes.com/author/1867-William_J_Brennan

Lao Tzu; Tom Butler-Bowdon. (2012). Tao Te Ching. In Tao Te Ching (pg. 29–224). Hoboken, NJ: Capstone. Hardback.

Boundless. (2016). “The Role of Attention in Memory.” Boundless Psychology. Retrieved from https://www.boundless.com/psychology/textbooks/boundless-psychology-textbook/memory-8/step-1-memory-encoding-54/the-role-of-attention-in-memory-215-12750/

Dobrin D.S.W. (2016). Your Memory Isn’t What You Think It Is. Retrieved from https://www.psychologytoday.com /201307/am-i-right/your-memory-isn’t-what-you-think-it-is/

Douglas,S. (2012). FALSE EYEWITNESS. Discover. Nov2012, Vol. 33 Issue 9, p38-64. 6p. Retrieved from http://eds.b.ebscohost.com.lib.kaplan.edu/eds/detail/detail?vid=1&sid=8068892f-5d58-424d-a45d-

Foxhall, K. (2000). Suddenly, a big impact on criminal justice. The American Psychological Association. January 2000, Vol 31, No. 1. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/monitor/jan00/pi4.aspx

Matlin, M. W. (2012). Cognition, 8th Edition [VitalSource Bookshelf version]. Retrieved from https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9781118545560

Schiller D, Monfils M, Raio CM, Johnson D, LeDoux JE, Phelps EA (2010) Blocking the return of fear in humans using reconsolidation update mechanisms. Nature, 463:49-53 Retrieved from http://neuroscience.mssm.edu/schiller/schiller_publications.html

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